JFK Essays (2725 words) - Kennedy Family, , Term Papers

JFK JFK John Fitzgerald Kennedy 35th president of the United States, the youngest person ever to be elected president. He was also the first Roman Catholic president and the first president to be born in the 20th century. Kennedy was assassinated before he completed his third year as president. Therefore his achievements were limited. Nevertheless, his influence was worldwide, and his handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis may have prevented war. Young people especially liked him. No other president was so popular. He brought to the presidency an awareness of the cultural and historical traditions of the United States. Because Kennedy expressed the values of 20th-century America, his presidency was important beyond its political achievements. John Kennedy was born in Brookline, Massachusetts. He was the second of nine children. Kennedy announced his candidacy early in 1960. By the time the Democratic National Convention opened in July, he had won seven primary victories. His most important had been in West Virginia, where he proved that a Roman Catholic could win in a predominantly Protestant state. When the convention opened, it appeared that Kennedy's only serious challenge for the nomination would come from the Senate majority leader, Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. However, Johnson was strong only among Southern delegates. Kennedy won the nomination on the first ballot and then persuaded Johnson to become his running mate. Two weeks later the Republicans nominated Vice President Richard Nixon for president and Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., who was ambassador to the United Nations and whom Kennedy had defeated for the Senate in 1952, for vice president. In the fast-paced campaign that followed, Kennedy made stops in 46 states and 273 cities and towns, while Nixon visited every state and 170 urban areas. Another important element of the campaign was the support Kennedy received from blacks in important Northern states, especially Illinois and Pennsylvania. They supported him in part because he and Robert Kennedy had tried to get the release of the civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. King, who had been jailed for taking part in a civil rights demonstration in Georgia, was released soon afterward. The election drew a record 69 million voters to the polls, but Kennedy won by only 113,000 votes. Kennedy was inaugurated on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address he emphasized America's revolutionary heritage. 2"The same ... beliefs for which our forebears fought are still at issue around the globe," Kennedy said. 3"Let the word go forth from this time and place to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans-born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage-and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this nation has always been committed and to which we are committed today at home and around the world." Kennedy challenged Americans to assume the burden of "defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger." The words of his address were, 4"Ask not what your country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country." Kennedy sought with considerable success to attract brilliant young people to government service. His hope was to bring new ideas and new methods into the executive branch. As a result many of his advisers were teachers and scholars. Among them were McGeorge Bundy and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., both graduates of Harvard. Kennedy's most influential adviser was Theodore C. Sorenson, a member of Kennedy's staff since his days in the Senate. Sorenson wrote many of Kennedy's speeches and exerted a strong influence on Kennedy's development as a political liberal, 5 a person who believes that the government should directly help people to overcome poverty or social discrimination. The president and Mrs. Kennedy attempted to make the White House the cultural center of the nation. Writers, artists, poets, scientists, and musicians were frequent dinner guests. On one occasion the Kennedy's held a reception for all the American winners of the Nobel Prize, people who made outstanding contributions to their field during the past year. At the party the president suggested that more talent and genius was at the White House that night than there had been since Thomas Jefferson had last dined there alone. At a meeting with the leader of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Nikita Khrushchev, Kennedy asked the name of a medal Khrushchev was wearing. When the premier identified it as the Lenin Peace Medal, Kennedy remarked, 6"I hope you keep it." On another occasion he told a group of Republican business leaders, 7"It would be premature to ask for your support in

Christmas and Winter Holiday Vocabulary 100 Word List

Christmas and Winter Holiday Vocabulary 100 Word List This comprehensive Christmas  and winter holiday vocabulary word list can be used in the classroom in so many ways. Use it to inspire word walls, word searches, puzzles, Hangman and Bingo games, crafts, worksheets, story starters, creative writing word banks, and a wide variety of elementary lesson plans in almost any subject. Be sure to customize the vocabulary you choose based on the policies of your school. Some public and private schools may only allow secular references to winter holidays, while some faith-based schools may prefer not to include secular or popular mythological references to Santa Claus, Frosty the Snowman, or other secular holiday  characters.   Types of Word List Activities Here are some ideas for using this vocabulary list in your classroom.   Word Walls: Build vocabulary by designating one wall or part of a wall to post large print words that all students can read from their desks.   Word Search Puzzles: You can create your own word search puzzles using one of several online puzzle generators. This allows you to customize them as appropriate for your class and school policies. For example, some schools may only allow secular references to the winter holidays. Sight Word Flash Cards: Make flash cards to improve vocabulary for early elementary students and for those with learning disabilities. Building holiday vocabulary will help them with seasonal reading. Holiday words may also be more fun for them to learn and spark interest. Hangman: This is an easy use  for  Christmas words and playing this game in the classroom can be a fun, interactive break between lessons. Poem  or Story Written Word Exercise: Have students draw three or more of the words to incorporate into a poem or story. You can assign these to be turned in or shared with the class. Poems may be rhyming or not  or in the form of a limerick or haiku. You can ask for a minimum word count for written story assignments. Impromptu Speech Exercise: Have students draw one to five words to incorporate into an impromptu speech to give to the class. You can have them draw words and immediately begin a speech, or give them a few minutes to prepare. Christmas and Winter Holiday 100 Word List AdventangelsannouncementbellsBethlehemBlitzencandlescandycandy canescardscedarcelebrateceremonieschimneyChristmas cookiesChristmas treecoldCometcranberry saucecrowdsCupidDancerDasherDecemberdecorationsdollsDonnerdressingeggnogelvesfamily reunionfestivalfirFrostyfruitcakegift boxesgiftsgoodwillgreetingshamhappyholidayhollyholyiciclesjollylightslistsmerrymiraclemistletoeNew YearNoelNorth Polepageantparadespartypiepineplum puddingpoinsettiaPrancerpresentspumpkin piepunchred/greenreindeerribbonRudolphsacredsalessauceScroogeseasonsledsleigh bellssnowflakesspiritSt. Nickstandstarstickersstocking stufferssweet potatotidingstinseltogethernesstoystraditiontraffictripsturkeyvacationVixenWinterworshipwrapping paperwreathyuleyuletide

Hylomorphism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Hylomorphism - Essay Example Form on the other hand is a factor that is derived from the way that we perceive an object. It is what is seen and judged to be the nature of a being. In relation to change, form is subject to change once matter undergoes the process; matter changes form when subject to the elements of change. Understanding how the two principles exist makes it relatively easy to determine the effect that a certain change factor could have on a being (The Editors of Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica). Substance dualism is a philosophical concept classified under the general dualism class (argues that there are essentially two substances that exist; the mental and the physical). Substance dualism postulates that the physical and the mental elements are separate and they exist independent of each other. Taking this view is inherently different from that taken by Hylomorphism, given the nature that change can take place in either of them. Under substance dualism, physical change can take place without affecting the mental and vice versa. On the other hand, Hylomorphism holds that change in matter must affect form and the alternative holds

Explain what is meant by orientalism. Discuss how this has influenced Essay

Explain what is meant by orientalism. Discuss how this has influenced Western interpretation of cultures past or present - Essay Example Orientalism could also be used to mean a manner of seeing, which distorts and emphasizes differences in cultures between the Arabic people and people, from Europe and the U.S. It entails viewing the Arab culture as uncivilized, exotic, dangerous, and backward (Said 1978, p. 2). Said defined orientalism as â€Å"the west acceptance of the differences between West and East.† He purported that this acceptance serves as the starting point for detailed social descriptions, epics, theories, and political accounts about the Orient, mind, its people, and customs. In a nutshell, orientalism can be described as the image of the ‘Orient’ portrayed as a thought system. As a scholarly discipline, orientalism began in the eighteenth century following the European colonial conquest of countries in the Middle East. Academic disciplines that addressed the orient flourished; this led to the adoption of orientalism in France, England, and other European nations. Orientalism became t he basis of the western exertion of power over the Orient (Near East Cultures). The west viewed the Middle East as an exhausted, stagnant, and defective region, which needed the involvement of Europeans to enhance civilization. This justification happened with an aim to keeping the dreams and ambitions of the western powers alive. Therefore, Oreintalism can be regarded to have originated from the west’s desire to conquer the Near East and exert significant influence (MacKenzie1995, p. 24). Influence of Orientalism on Western Interpretation of Cultures in the Near East Orientalism has had a profound influence on the way Western cultures depict aspects of the cultures from the East. Western writers and designers have always portrayed the East negatively. Further, artists from the west represent the cultures of the East as backward. For example, French artists in the 19th century used orientalism in their description of Eastern cultures (Kennedy 2000, p. 351). These Orientalists used colors, styles, and elements that portrayed Mediterranean countries of the Near East. Westerners have come to adopt eastern styles, motifs, and subject matter in design, architecture, and art. For example, Turquerie as a fashion dominated the western art work from 15th century to 18th century. Therefore, the west has used fashion, and other artistic styles to portray the Near East negatively (Tausch 2006, p. 83). Further, the West depictions of Islamic Moors, especially the Muslim groups of West Asia and North Africa, portray orientalism. For example, in early biblical scenes, Jewish and Roman characters were displayed with exotic costumes. This reflected the culture of clothing such as wearing of turbans in the near East. In addition, the portrayal of oriental carpets in paintings of renaissance depicts the cultures of the Far East (MacKenzie1995, p. 27). As more Western artists travelled to the Middle East, they represented numerous scenes, which entailed aspects of the Orie ntal culture. They depicted the cultures as exotic owing to its differences. The artists had a keen interest on the Islamic cultures of the Near East. For example, French artists Eugene Delacroix and Jean Leon painted pictures, which depicted Islamic culture. These pictures had an impact on western interpretation of the Western Cultures (Tausch 2006, p. 84). In the West, the use of the orient has continued in the Movies, as westerners use

Estimate the Market Size Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Estimate the Market Size - Case Study Example Noarlunga centre is an attractive place due to the reason that it covers the residential, commercial and parkland region. Moreover, the recent growth and development is another feature that makes it an eye-catching place (City of Onkaparinga, 2011). Stage lives including the living theatre, concert and visual arts are one of the product types available at Hopgood Theatre. According to the statistics, it has come to conclusion that adults that age 15 years and above living in South Australia are the main stakeholders that have an interest in arts and theatre. In addition, approximately 38 percent of the people that makes up more than 2.5 million visitors attend cultural venues and events on yearly basis. Moreover, the people are also keen to come under involvement in cultural activities, which depicts the figure of over 225,000 people. Slightly over 25 percent of the children between 5 to 14 years are also involved in cultural activities (Australian Government, 2011). ... A higher proportion that is approximately 99 percent of juvenile of the age group of 15 to 17 years in SA attended cultural venues and events, compared to the other age groups surveyed (ABS, 2007). According to the statistics, the rate of market is increasing due to the reason that the average income as compared to the previous years has seen an inclination in the trend. In addition, the primary cause for the increase in income was the increasing demand of the labor and employment rate also increased with the launching of projects. Moreover, the importance and emphasis on education has also experienced a raise and enhancement over the years as the increased number of visitors on the website proves this fact. While looking at the other end of the continuum, the average spending time of people on the culture and recreation or the leisure activities has come across a declination towards the trend over the past few years. This downfall has added to the reason of the decreasing market. Ye ar Product (Cultural Arts) Sales in Million (Approximate value) Revenues in Million Which month is more likely to have customers 2010 Living Stage 840 2750 April to June 2011 Living Stage 800 3150 April to June 2012 Living Stage 760 3550 April to June A notice in the trend has come under observation that the period from April to June is the peak season in which people are likely to involve themselves in the cultural activities and events (ABS, 2007). References City of Onkaparinga. 2011. Noarlunga Centre - Noarlunga Downs. Retrieved on September, 07, 2011: http://profile.id.com.au/Default.aspx?id=119&pg=101&gid=250&type=enum ABS. 2007. South Australian Cultural Statistics. National Centre for Culture and

Examining Murder And Unlawful Killing On People Criminology Essay

Examining Murder And Unlawful Killing On People Criminology Essay Investigative psychology is an approach the police take in order to inspect criminal behavior. This form of psychology is mainly used to answer important questions that arise during the process of criminal investigations. When checking a crime scene there are three main questions running through the minds of the detectives: what are the behavioral features of the perpetrator, what are the characteristics of the offender, and is it possible that there are other crimes committed by the same offender. According to Jillian Robbins (Stone, 2009l) the behavior of the criminal at the time of the incident is one of the best forms of evidence to a case. She reports that there are three important behavioral traits that all detectives look out for while inspecting a crime scene: the modus operandi, the signature and the typology of the offender. The modus operandi or MO refers to the way the offender behaves or acts while trying to carry out his crime successfully. Offenders usually have a strong desire to perform the perfect crime, or to commit a crime without getting caught. As the offender gains experience with each crime he commits, the MO will also change until the effective method is found. This means that an offenders MO will changes through a series of learned behaviors. Richard Quinney points out that police investigators are trained to recognize the MO of the offender but not to solely use the MO to link crimes together. (Clinard, Quinney, 1973) He admits that it is difficult not to jump to conclusions when dealing with identical MOs, especially when the crimes are close in location, but states that including any evidence without unreasonable doubt is a serious police error. A signature, commonly referred to as personation, describes any unusual details at the scene of the crime other than the ones actually needed to commit the crime. Most offenders will leave identical marks at the scenes of each crime they commit. The mark could range from anything like writing on the walls at the scene of the crime to placing the victims body in unusual positions. The signature has a higher level of importance to the investigator because it is directly related to the cognitive process that is unique to each offender. (Stone, 2009) The typology is the last major behavioral pattern used to identify the offender. There are three main categories of typologies: undoing, staging and trophy. Undoing is when the offender psychologically tries to undo the crime scene. This behavioral pattern is most commonly found in offenders who get distraught after the death of their victim. There are many different ways that the offenders will try to deal with the psychological impact or realization of their crime. Some offenders try to return the victim back to a naturally looking state such as laying them down in bed with a pillow under their head or dressing them in clean clothes. Other offenders may try to dehumanize the victim by either beating the victims face in, covering the face with material or rolling the victim facedown. In these examples the offender is trying to veil the identity of the victim in order to make the crime less personal. (Akers, 1994) The second category of typology is staging. Staging is intentionally a ltering the crime scene in hopes to distract the investigators. Michael Stone (Stone, 2009) points out that staging is committed by someone other than the offender to either mislead the investigators away from the suspect, or to protect the victims family. The most commonly reported reason for staging is to cover up autoeroticism or the self-arousal and self-gratification of a sexual desire without a partner. (Ellis, 1906) The four types of autoeroticism are autoerotic hanging, aqua eroticism, chemical eroticism and self-suffocation. All forms result in a lack of oxygen that increases sexual stimulation. Two-thirds of the families of these victims stage the crime scene and reposition the body for the victim to look more presentable to authorities. (Ellis, 1906) The last typology is trophy. Offenders who are typed with a trophy typology are those who take a meaningful souvenir from the victim to either remember or to control the crime scene. The trophy could be anything from a pictur e of the victim to a body part. It is important to note that a trophy typology could be part of the offenders signature. The next evidence the investigators look at while inspecting the crime is the organization of the scene. The way the crime scene looks after a crime tells a lot about the offender. There are three types of crime scenes: organized, disorganized and mixed. An organized crime scene shows that the offender maintained control during the murder. Profilers conclude that an offender of an organized crime scene most likely selected his victim on a specific basis. An example would be a serial killer who selected only victims with blonde hair and blue eyes. Offenders of organized murder crime scenes have been profiled and interestingly have been classified with specific character traits. These offenders usually have above average to genius IQ levels, are socially adequate, sexually competent, had inconsistent childhood discipline, maintained control during the crime, used alcohol during the crime, live with a partner and have a car that runs in good condition. These offenders plan their crimes methodically. They abduct their victims and kill them in one locations and dispose of the body elsewhere, they are likely to lure their victims with ploys of sympathy, they commonly target prostitutes, they demand submission from their victim, they have a high knowledge of forensics and are able to cover their track and they take pride in their actions and follow their case in the media. When questioned, friends and family often describe the offender of organized crime scene as kind and unlikely to hurt anyone. (Bordua, 1962) Disorganized crime scenes prove that the offender most likely committed the crime without premeditation. This shows that the crime was committed under impulse or out of extreme rage. This offender likely murders whenever the opportunity arises having no specific criteria in picking a victim. This offender may have a history of mental problems and is in almost all cases socially inadequate. Often the body is left at the place of death and there are no signs of the offender trying to cover their tracks. Profilers report that disorganized crime scene offenders have below average IQ levels, do not hold down jobs, are sexually incompetent, are anxious during the crime, live alone, work or live near the crime scene, have a minimal interest in following the crime in the news, leave a random/sloppy crime scene, commit sexual acts after the death of the victim, leave the body in view of others to see and often leave the weapon behind. A mixed crime scene is one in which there are evidence of an organized is and a disorganized crime scene. The offender usually starts off with an organized intention but when something unplanned interrupts, strays away from his plans and becomes disorganized. Not all crime scenes have the same level of organization to them, it varies for every scene. After the investigators collect all information based on the characteristics of the crime, they then use the information in a process of profiling. There are two approaches to profiling, the nomothetic approach where statistics from a large number of previous offenders are taken and profilers look for a pattern, or the idiographic approach where the profiler takes once case study and intensely analyzes it. One type of profiling is criminal profiling. Criminal profiling analyzes the personality traits, habits, features and behavioral patterns found at the crime scene in order to develop a description of the offender. This practice is also known as crime scene analysis. When using a nomothetic approach to criminal profiling the investigator is able to see more details because of the normal distribution, but less about the offender themselves. When using the idiographic approach to criminal profiling the investigator comes up with detailed information on the offender. It is almost as if the investigator knows the offender inside and out. A flaw to this method is that the investigator is unable to compare the offender to other offenders which leads to the possibility of forcing a profile on an offender it does not belong to. This phenomena is knows as confirmation bias or fitting the pieces that work and ignoring the ones that do not work. Another form of profiling is geographic profiling. Geographic profiling is used to determine either the area of residence of the offender or to predict the area of the next possible crime. This form of profiling is basically done to find which geographic location the offender feels most comfortable in and prefers to take victims in. (Beauregard, Proulx, Rossmo, 2005) Profiling is extremely usefully to investigators especially in multiple murder crimes. With the use of this system, authorities are able to narrow down people and locations in catch the offenders before they strike again. Dr. Grover Godwin believes that obtaining th e dumpsite plus the abduction site drastically improves the ability to pin point the offenders place of residence. The downfall to geographical profiling is that profilers need at least five crimes to find a pattern. This means that the offender continues to take lives before this process can take effect. Many profilers argue that when the offender exhibits some form of mental illness at the scene of the crime such as sadistic torture, evisceration, postmortem slashing and cutting, and other mutilations, the profiling of serious offenders is more successful. This is a result based from the theory that when a person is mentally disturbed they demonstrate the greatest consistency in behavior from situation to situation. Another strategy the investigators use to determine the offender is the psychological autopsy. This is a reconstructive psychological evaluation that differs from profiling. Here the profiling is done on a dead person, and the identity of the person is already known. There are two types of psychological autopsies. The first type is suicide psychology autopsy and it is used to understand and identify factors that contribute to the suicide. The second type is the equivocal death psychological autopsy and it is used to determine the reason of the death. In both the suicide psychological autopsy and the equivocal death psychological autopsy, a forensic psychologist is hired. The forensic psychologist looks at the lifestyles, behavioral history, personality traits, and the amount of psychological pain the victim was in. They conduct interviews with family, friends, and people who knew the victim. The forensic psychologist also looks through the victims personal documents in order to get a better understanding of the cause of death. Once the investigators know the reasoning behind the murder they are able to start narrowing down suspects. Now that we have a base understanding of the strategies investigators use to expose offenders, it is time to compare and define each different category of multiple murder offenders. First off, multiple murders are the killing of many people either in the same occurrence or over a period of time. Although these events are rare, they are highly publicized and remain in the memories of many people. There are three classifications of multiple murderers: serial murderers, mass murderers and spree murderers. A serial murderer is when one person kills a minimum of three people over time. The time period contains a cooling off period in which the offender will not kill the next victim for weeks, months or sometimes even years. This cooling off period is the main difference between serial murderers and other multiple murderers. The majority of serial murderers are single white males who are highly intelligent with above average IQ levels. They commonly have trouble holding down jobs and come from unstable homes where typically the father abandoned the family and the mother raised the children. They are often abused physically, mentally or emotionally and the abuse is usually by an older male figure that the offenders mother brought in to replace to offenders father. As children, serial murderers commonly display what has come to be known as the triad: being fascinated with fire setting, bedwetting after the age of 12, and displaying sadistic activities or the torture of small animals. They show characteristics of anti-social personality disorder at a young age and they tend to lack empathy and guilt when disciplined and are egocentric and impulsive. The crime scene left by a serial murderers may be organized or disorganized. Serial murders are known to kill for different motives. Hagan categorizes the motives of the offenders into three groups: visionary, mission oriented and hedonistic. (Hagan, 2010) A visionary motive is when the offender suffers from a psychotic break and believes that another person or even god or the devil instructs them to kill. A mission oriented motive is when the offender justifies his act by saying they are ridding the world of a specific type of person, an example being homosexuals or prostitutes. These offenders are not psychotic they are only out to change the nature of society. An offender with a hedonistic motive seeks thrill and pleasure from killing. They see people as expendable. There are three different types of hedonistic motives: lust, thrill, comfort and power/control. A hedonistic lust motive shows sex as the primary motif. Fantasy plays a large role in these killings. It doesnt matter to the offender if the victim is dead or alive while committing sexual acts. Of fenders report sexual gratification levels raised the more tortured and mutilated the victim is. The weapons of choice are usually those that require close range. The time between each murder decreases as the offender continues to kill. The second hedonistic motive is thrill. Thrill murderers primary motif is to induce pain of cause terror to the victim. They seek adrenalin rushes by hunting and killing their victims. These offenders kill just for the thrill of it and have no sexual aspect to the murder. The victims are strangers although the killer may have followed the victim for a period of time. These killers can abstain from killing for long periods of time. They refine their murder method after each kill in an attempt to become more successful. The next hedonistic motive is comfort. A comfort offender kills for a material gain or for a more comfortable lifestyle. The victims are usually family members or friends. After the murder the offender usually waits a long period of tim e before killing again to lower suspicion levels. The offenders are usually females and kill with poison. Most comfort killers have previous convictions for fraud, embezzlement or theft. The last hedonistic motive is power/control in which the offender kills to exert power over the victim. These offenders were usually abused as children, causing an inadequate or powerless feeling as an adult. The offenders often sexually abuse the victims but the abuse is not motivated by lust, it is motivated by domination. Female serial murderers are classified separately then male serial murderers because of the drastic differences between them. Only one-third of female serial killers killed strangers (Benekos, 1995) compared to males who almost always killed strangers. The victims of female serial killers are almost always husbands, ex-husbands, or current lovers. They murder for personal gain such as insurance benefits, will allocations or estate. Sexual or sadistic motives are extremely rare and psychopathic traits and documentation of child abuse is commonly reported in these offenders. The method of preferred killing is usually poison or low profile. Evidence suggests that females are less violent and less aggressive. Female serial killers are known to have a borderline personality disorder and a lack of empathy. Female serial murdering is very rare and the rate of re-crime is less often than males. Profilers report that there are greatest risk areas for serial killers to pick their victims from. Jenkins (1994) suggests that the availability of perspective victims and the attitudes of law enforcement agencies toward those victims play a crucial role when choosing a victim. Reports show that serial murderers pick their potential victims on the basis of easy escape and the vulnerability level of the victim. The prefer killing in a place with easy access and the option to leave the vicinity without causing alarm. Urban subcultures and areas with isolated landscape are the most preferred killing location. Areas that contain high levels or elderly or poor people are the second preferred location. The derelict areas within a city appear to be a common target location, also young women in or near a college campus. Victims are often prostitutes, runaways and homosexuals. Most serial killing has occurred in the western states suggesting that it is a result of lifestyle, economic conditions and availability of potential victims. Serial killers tend to select victims near their homes or workplaces. 14 percent of serial killers use their homes or workplaces as the preferred location, whereas another 52 percent commit their murders in the same general location or region, such as the same neighborhood or city. (Hickey) All serial offenders are classified as having one of four different hunting patterns: hunter, poacher, troller, and trapper. The hunter chooses his victim near his place of residence. The poacher travels to another location to find his victim. The troller meets his victim in an opportunistic manner and the trapper has a job which allows him to meet his victim in the area he happens to be working in. Although it is most common for serial killers to be while, Walsh found that nearly 22% or serial killers in the United States have been black. He points out the there is extensive media coverage of white serial killers in the United States, but black serial killing goes unpublicized. The extensive media coverage of Bundy, Gacy, and Berkowitz cases have made these killers almost household names, but African Americans such as Watts, Johnson, Francois, and Wallace are practically unknown, despite having operated within the same general framework (1980s and 1990s). (Walsh, 2005) The second type of multiple murderers is known as the mass murderer. A mass murderer is a person who kills three or more individuals with-out a cooling off period. These offenders intentionally and indiscriminately kill often trying to exterminate entire groups of communities. The victims are often picked due to their ethnicity or religion. The killing occurs in one single location and the killer often commits suicide after completing the act. Mass murderers are divided into five different groups: perverted love, politics and hate, revenge/workplace, product tampering and school shootings. The different groups pertain to the reasoning behind the offender when killing. A perverted love offender kills out of depression. There are two different types of perverted love offenders: family murder/suicide and family killing. Family murder/ suicide are when an individual is unable to differential between himself and his family. He sees his family members as part of himself. He believes that if he isnt able to find happiness for himself then his extended self (family) is unable to find happiness also. This offender will kill his entire family before taking his own life. He truly believes he is saving his family from future suffering. This offender is egocentric and does not allow the family to have a different opinion that he does. The second type or perverted love is family killing. This offender kills to protect his family. The killing does not involve suicide. An example of family killing is a father of his daughters son killing his entire family when his wife threatens to divorce him. His reasoning for killing was to protect the family name. The next type of mass murder is classified under politics and hate. This type of murder is more commonly known as suicide bombers. The offenders believe that they are doing well for the world because they are eliminating a number of people who have different views than they do. The offender is usually single, between the ages of 17 and 33 and has some or full high school education. The victims are random. A different, subtype under suicide bombers are set and run killers. They have the same intentions as suicide bombers but instead of taking their own life they set killing devices in motion and flee. A different reasoning behind mass murder is revenge. These offenders want to payback someone who has humiliated them. They do not accept blame for their actions but instead are irrational and blame others. The revenge offender is known as the disgruntled employee. These offenders see their career as the only meaningful part of their lives. The attack usually formulates when the offender sees his salary or status as disappearing or having no chance for opportunity. They are incapable of coping with their problems by change. The average age of this killer is 38; he experiences frequent chronic isolation and has no significant criminal record. His assault is planned and his victims are specifically chosen. The victims appear to be either the boss of the offender, a co-worker who recently received a promotion, or a socially adequate co-worker. The fourth categories of mass murders are those involved with product tampering. These offenders sabotage a commercial product usually for commercial gain. The offender usually expects financial gain either through litigation on behalf of the victim (wrongful death), through extortion, or through business operations. (Ressler, 1992) The most common method of product tampering it to inject cyanide into products. Cyanide is the poison of choice because of its potency and availability. When news gets out that there is a problem with a product, many cases are illegitimately filed by false complaints from people seeking monetary claims. School shootings are the last category of mass murder. School shootings are very rare but highly publicized. Investigations show that there are two common characteristics of school shooters: peer rejection and social rejection. 70% of school shooters were termed loners by fellow classmates. 62% abused drugs or alcohol and 43% were bullied by others. (Bordua, 1962) These offenders have a history of violence including violence toward people, humans and property. They often report having violent fantasies, atypical depression and mixed personality disorders. School shooters typically kill in pairs, have easy access to firearms, and have told at least one person about their plan to kill which is typically very detailed. Other students usually encourage the attacks. The victims of school shooters are usually students who bullied, harassed or picked on the offender. Almost  ¾ of school shooters made suicidal gestures before attacking. The academic standings of school shooters range from failing to excellent. The family situation or home life of the offender may range from very good to bad, and most offenders engage in some behavior that caused concern of indicated a need for help. The next type of multiple murderers is the spree killer. A spree offender kills two or more victims in a short duration without a cooling off period. They kill at two or more locations with almost no time break between murders. (US Bureau of Justice Statistics) It is the lack of the cooling off period that marks the difference between spree killers and serial killers. Lastly is the angel of death. The angel of death is a person who makes a career out of killing others. They are usually drawn to the medical fields. These offenders will take the life of their patient only because they have the power to. They make the death look to others like a natural cause when the reality is that the person would have made it. Something they torture their victims with unusual medications. These offenders have pathological interests in the power of life and death. Now we are going to make a transition from pre-identification of the offender to a method of understanding the reasoning behind to offenders action after they have been caught. The investigator will first ask the offender series of questions relating back to their childhood until the present day. This is to get an understanding of why the offender believes he murdered. This will also show the lifestyles of the offender and aid in future research of early risk factors. Next the offender will be tested for any psychotic disorders and then will undergo a forensic hypnosis. The hypnosis can bring forward long-forgotten or even repressed childhood memories. This process will either cause hypnotic hyper amnesia which is the enhancement or revival of memory or it will cause non-hypnotic hyper amnesia which is the revival of memories through non-hypnotic methods such as free association, fantasy and recall techniques. The investigator will try to obtain as many specific details as possible f rom the offender to help with future research. Unfortunately there is limited research available on and multiple murder situations where the offender commits suicide. This is because the facts and resources are limited to anything left behind by the offender instead of documented reporting straight from the offender himself. Up to this point we have been discussing the methods of investigation and the characteristics and profiles of each type of multiple murderers. Now we are going to look at a few famous cases of multiple murderers and point out the evidence of crime scene investigation, profiling, and classification into serial killing, mass murder or spree murder. The first case we are going to look at is Ted Bundy. Ted Bundy fits the typical serial killer classification to a T. He is a white male who is in his 20s or 30s and experienced an atypical childhood. He went on a three year killing spree eventually confessing to 30 different murders. He used his good looks to lure victims and often pretended he was injured to get sympathy. When looking at the personality of Ted Bundy he displays certain early risk factors. He was born to an unwed mother whose parents wanted to avoid the social stigma of having an illegitimate grandchild born to a young mother. As a result Teds grandparents claimed him as their own and Ted grew up believing that his mother was actually his sister. No one knows who his biological father was and he was not told the truth about his mother until his second year of college. Another early risk factor for Bundy was that he began showing violence at only 15 years old. His Aunt Julia recalls an incident of lying down for a nap in her home and waking up to find knives surrounding her and a smiling three year old Bundy at her side. He was assumed to have picked up some of his ways by following his grandfather as a role model. His grandfather was known to have tortured animals, abuse the family dog, and was even said to have swung the neighborhood cats around by their tails. Ted was said to have been fascinated my mutilating animals. He was known to be a habitual liar. He compulsively stole and shoplifter. He later claimed that he was also involved in voyeurism at a young age specifically by peeping into peoples windows and was arrested twice as a juvenile. Although it is impossible to predict who will become a serial killer, Bundy portrayed many predictive behaviors including cruelty to animals, bedwetting, lying, drugs and alcohol abuse, and an extended hist ory of violence. Anti-social personality disorder is a mental disorder defined as the essential feature for the diagnosis is a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violations of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. (Clinard, Quinney, 1973) Deceit and manipulation are considered essential features in this disorder. The individual must be age 18 or older as well as have a documented history of a conduct disorder before the age of 15. People having anti-social personality disorders are also know as sociopaths and psychopaths. Bundy had many aspects of anti-social personality disorder. He failed to conform to social norms. When he began sneaking out of his house and peeping into other peoples windows he reported those behaviors to be sexually arousing and often masturbated while doing them. He was deceitful. He had a disregard for safety of others. He occasionally would disable a womans car to make her more vulnerable, without actually doing anything to her. (Hickey, 1997) He lacked remorse. He brutally murdered thirty women and was so irrational about it he did not believe he did anything wrong. Bundy suffered from both psychopathic disorders and antisocial personality disorder. He was classified as manic depressive and a narsopath. He showed symptoms of the psychopathic triad (bedwetting, fire setting, and torturing animals). Bundy used the same hunting pattern nearly every time. He drove a VW Beetle in which he would remove the passenger seat when he went out hunting. He used his wit and charm on females to get them to come over to his car and then he would beat each girl over the head with an iron crow bar. The semi-conscious victim was then dragged out of the car and driven to Bundys murder site, Taylor Mountain. He would then put a mask on and use hand cuffs or rope to give his victims and even more helpless appeal. He chose his murder destination wisely because he knew he would be undisturbed while he raped and killed. After finishing, Bundy would bury the body and drive back home to Seattle to resume his respectable life. Although Bundy displayed many patterns of hunting, he was classified as a Troller mainly because he would be out and randomly encounter his next victim which he would then stalk until ready to kill. He also showed characteristics of a trapper by luring young women to his aid with a fake cast, posing as a police officer, and using his charm to seduce and take advantage of his victims. Bundy kept body parts to preserve the high he got from killing. This classifies him as a trophy offender. His modus operandi was clubbing women over the head with an iron bar and strangling them. Having a troublesome childhood and being lied to at an early age put Bundy at risk for conduct disorders. He was then made fun of at school and only dated twice in his life before reaching college. He did not want the companionship of a woman but only the popularity that came along with having one. He walked around with beautiful females just for the attention, just to be noticed. He did not trust women throughout his life. He lacked a good bond with females and combining that with his very stimulated sexual nature took out his anger towards females in the wrong way. The next case I want to look at is the Columbine High School massacre. On April 20, 1999 two students of Columbine High School, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, led a massacre which killed 13 people and injured 21 others before taking their own lives. Early warning signs arose when Eric Harris first created a private website on American Online where he posted blogs which told of his anger against society. He included death threats about a former friend of his, Brooks Brown. He also had a blog about his negative thoughts towards parents, school and his friends. He began writing how-tos including how to cause mischief and how to make explosives. He blogged about the detailed trouble that himself and Dylan were causing. His blogs were very low profile and no one really knew or payed much attention to the boys writings until Brooks Browns mother was informed of the website and read the death threats against her son. Browns mother made multiple complaints to the sheriff department about the site but wasnt taken seriously until it was di

Sumner - Brooks Incident :: essays research papers

Preston Brooks was born in Edgefield District, South Carolina on August 5th, 1819. He graduated from South Carolina College (now known as the University of South Carolina), in 1839, and after he graduated he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1845. Brooks also served in the Mexican-American War with the Palmetto Regiment. After he had returned from the war, Brooks fought a duel with future Texas Senator Louis T. Wigfall. In the duel, Brooks was shot in the hip, forcing him to use a walking cane for the rest of his life. In 1853, Brooks was elected to the 33rd Congress as a member of the Democratic Party. While in office, Brooks had met an anti-slavery campaigning Senator named Charles Sumner. Charles Sumner was born in Boston, Massachusetts, and graduated from Harvard law school in 1830. He edited a law review, the American Jurist, and served as a reporter for the United States Circuit Court. Sumner also lectured on constitutional and international law at Harvard ’s law school for three winter terms. Sumner first became a politician in 1845, while the Mexican-American War was in dispute. In an Independence Day speech before city officials in Boston, Sumner denounced the use of war for settling international disputes and promoted arbitration instead. He also opposed the annexation of Texas and criticized the institution of slavery. From these speeches, Sumner was known as a keen and favored public speaker. In 1848, Sumner abandoned the Whig party in support of Martin Van Buren’s unsucc essful Free-Soil campaign for presidency. In 1851, a Democratic-Free-Soil coalition in the Massachusetts legislature chose Sumner to fill the U.S. Senate seat of Daniel Webster, who had resigned to become Secretary of State. While Sumner was in the Senate, he became a leader of the anti-slavery-forces. During the debates on slavery in Kansas in May 1856, Sumner delivered a two-day oration called "The Crime against Kansas", that brutally defamed Southern expansion of slavery. When Sumner gave this speech, Congressman Preston Brooks of South Carolina believed that Sumner had insulted his uncle, Senator Andrew Butler. Brooks backfired and used his cane to beat Sumner, who was seated at his desk on the Senate floor, until he was unconscious. Sumner, bleeding profusely, had to be carried out of the room. Sumner’s injuries from the beating kept him out of office for three years. The severe beating on the Senate floor helped escalate the tensions that led to the Civil War and became a huge symbol for both the North and South.

Health Care Reform 2010 Health And Social Care Essay

US health care system was inefficient despite of disbursement 15 % of GDP during 2006 which was more than three times than in 1960. Ten old ages back, the wellness attention system of USA was announced to be broken and in future it did n't better. Managed attention did non do seeable the fixes promises. The rates of premium are increasing. The annoyance of patients as good physicians flourish. The survey shows that about 45 million people in Americans are still uninsured. In the approaching hereafter, these issues will acquire worse and new challenges will come on the screen. New engineering is doing topographic point and it is doing the things efficient, but the cost of intervention every bit good new trial is higher so before.A Doctors are doing the lives of people lengthy so now more people require the medical intervention so earlier. As the age of babe is increasing so they are demanding the better interventions. Owing to the increased cost, employers will non accept the position quo. Sp they exclude the benefits for new hiring. Others might go forth the concern of insurance concern wholly and will lend merely to cover the costs but will non give coverage by themselves. The figure of uninsured people in America will increase because of these alterations. Disenfranchised middleA category will lift in consequences of these alterations. Employers will travel for and prefer this alteration. The wellness attention system of American splits the population into two groups foremost is insiders and 2nd is foreigners. Insiders are those who are insured and they have good insurance so they get everything modern. No affair hoe expensive the medical specialty and intervention is. Foreigners are those who have hapless insurance program or nil at all. They receive really small out of their insurance programs. About 47 million Americans are uninsured and the figure is turning twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours. Insurance companies presently deny covering people with preexistent conditions. Peoples who have terrible medical conditions like AIDS, malignant neoplastic disease and other such diseases were non covered by the insurance companies. These people are at bad and that ‘s why non covered by companies. Major employers are cutting their costs in healthcare disbursement to vie in the planetary challenging market.[ 2 ]Employers are denying paying insurance premiums to these workers due to high premiums and the current economic state of affairss. Employers are switching the economic load towards the employees like deductibles and co-pays. Almost half of the belly-up people are due to the high medical costs and this cost is straight or indirectly affects the economic system. Hence, authorities has to pay more. One more job in the current system that physicians are non paid harmonizing to their service quality. Doctors are paid really less as compared to other states of Earth like in Uni ted Kingdom, physicians are paid for 95 % while in US merely 30 % . Lot of people even did non travel to sophisticate due to high costs of trials, intervention or followup after the intervention. These higher costs associated with health care besides stopped Americans sing physician on a regular basis for medical examination. Besides physicians do non cognize the history of patients due to non sing them on a regular basis. Americans besides have high ratio of chronic diseases. This is besides leads to more disbursement on health care and its handiness to hapless people. United States is the lone state among the developed states whose all citizens do non hold entree to its citizens except South Africa[ 3 ]. Medicare and Medicaid are two of authorities plans which provide medical every bit good as wellness related services to the specific group of people in USA. Both of them are different but are managed by the centres of Medicare and Medicaid which is a division of US Department of Health and Human Services. Medicaid is a plan which includes agencies tested wellness and medical services for specific persons and households who have low income and limited resources. It is chiefly looked after at federal degree, but each stat develops its ain criterions like eligibility criterions ; determines the sum, type, period and range of the services ; puting the rate of payment for services ; administers its ain Medicaid plans. As mentioned above that States is the concluding determination authorization of planning of service which will be provided under their Medicaid plan. But there are some necessary demands which must be matched by the States to have support from Federal. Following are the compulsory services: Impatient and Outpatient infirmary services Prenatal attention Children Vaccines Service of Physician Facility of Nursing services for persons aged 21 or older Servicess of Family be aftering with supplies Rural wellness clinic services Home wellness attention for individuals eligible for skilled-nursing services Lab and X ray services Pediatric and household nurse practician services Nurse-midwife services Federally qualified health-center ( FQHC ) services and ambulatory services Early on and periodic showing, diagnostic, and intervention ( EPSDT ) services for kids under age 21 Besides the above, the provinces can add more 34 optional approved services and can have the Federal matching support. Although each province has the authorization to put the eligibility standard for acquiring the Medicaid services but fundamentally the plan has been started to assist the people with low income. Other demands may include age, gestation, disablement, other assets and citizenship. Medicaid does non pay money to the persons. Medicaid plan plants like a plan provide intervention to the persons and gives payment to the wellness attention suppliers. State makes the payment while provinces receive reimbursement from Federal Government. Medicare is a Federal wellness plan of insurance. It pays for aged and certain handicapped Americans to infirmaries and medical attention. The plan is divided into 4 parts: Separate A, B, C and D. But two chief parts for infirmaries and medical insurance are Part A & A ; B. Separate A may be known as Hospitals Insurance, pays for the infirmary corsets and it includes repasts, supplies, semi private suites and proving. It besides pays for place wellness attention. Part B which is known as Supplementary Medical Insurance. It pays for doctors visits, place wellness attention costs, outpatient infirmaries, and other services for aged and disabled. It covers lasting medical equipments, certain inoculations, blood transfusion, lab and diagnosing trials, X raies, chemotherapy, hormonal trials and spectacless. Part B requires a certain premium which caries each twelvemonth. Part C is besides known as Medical Advantage Plan because it allows the users to plan a usage program that can be more helpful and align to the demands of their medical demands. Part D includes the prescription drug program. It is administered by one of many private insurance companies. Eligibility for Medicare requires a US citizen or uninterrupted 5 old ages legal occupant of US must be at least 65 old ages old or under 65 and disables or any age individual with End Stage Renal Disease. Payroll revenue enhancements which are collected through Federal Insurance Contributions Act and Self Employment Contributions Act are the major elements of support for Medicare. US health care reforms measure 2010 will be $ 940 billion over the period of 10 old ages.[ 4 ]This measure will cover 32 million American people who are uninsured. Health Insurance can be purchased through state-based exchanges and fiscal subsidy will be offered to the income below 133 per centum and 400 per centum of poorness degree in US. Tax relaxations will be offered to the little concern to buy employee insurances. Peoples who are availing subsidies will non be eligible for Medicare, Medicaid and besides for employer covered insurance. New revenue enhancement will be imposed in 2012 at rate of 3.8 per centum on income of households doing over $ 250,000 per twelvemonth. Insurance reforms will be introduced and insurance companies wo n't deny to the people and kids with preexistent conditions. Medicaid will spread out to include 133 per centum of the poorness degree in United States. In 2014, everyone must buy a insurance or face the one-year mulct fees. Employers who have more t han 50 employees must supply insurance to their employees or face a mulct on the footing of per worker. Illegal immigrants can non avail insurance even if they pay their ain money. Abortion insurance will be paid by private money and it will non be subsidized by federal or revenue enhancement remunerator financess. Republican offered an alternate plan on the footing of four common-sense reforms which can be afforded by people of US named as Common-sense health care reform. It includes that all concerns and households can purchase insurance across US. The 2nd point is that persons, little concerns and trade associations can get insurances at lower costs by combine attempts. It besides allows provinces to take down costs by making advanced reforms. The last reform is to complete the cases which must be obeyed by physicians because of acquiring sued by Police. This will stop the high cost trials and other processs which are really non required by the patients.

Planned Approach to Change Essay

The work of Kurt Lewin dominated the theory and practice of change management for over 40 years. However, in the past 20 years, Lewin’s approach to change, particularly the 3-Step model, has attracted major criticisms. The key ones are that his work: assumed organizations operate in a stable state; was only suitable for small-scale change projects; ignored organizational power and politics; and was top-down and management-driven. This article seeks to re-appraise Lewin’s work and challenge the validity of these views. It begins by describing Lewin’s background and beliefs, especially his commitment to resolving social conï ¬â€šict. The article then moves on to examine the main elements of his Planned approach to change: Field Theory; Group Dynamics; Action Research; and the 3-Step model. This is followed by a brief summary of the major developments in the ï ¬ eld of organizational change since Lewin’s death which, in turn, leads to an examination of the main criticisms levelled at Lewin’s work. The article concludes by arguing that rather than being outdated or redundant, Lewin’s approach is still relevant to the modern world. INTRODUCTION Freud the clinician and Lewin the experimentalist – these are the two men whose names will stand out before all others in the history of our psychological era.  The above quotation is taken from Edward C Tolman’s memorial address for Kurt Lewin delivered at the 1947 Convention of the American Psychological Association (quoted in Marrow, 1969, p. ix). To many people today it will seem strange that Lewin should have been given equal status with Freud. Some 50 years after his death, Lewin is now mainly remembered as the originator of the 3-Step model of change USA. Address for reprints: Bernard Burnes, Manchester School of Management, UMIST, Manchester M60 1QD, UK (Bernard.Burnes@umist.ac.uk).dismissed as outdated (Burnes, 2000; Dawson, 1994; Dent and Goldberg, 1999; Hatch, 1997; Kanter et al., 1992; Marshak, 1993). Yet, as this article will argue, his contribution to our understanding of individual and group behaviour and the role these play in organizations and society was enormous and is still relevant. In today’s turbulent and changing world, one might expect Lewin’s pioneering work on change to be seized upon with gratitude, especially given the high failure rate of many change programmes (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2001; Kearney, 1989; Kotter, 1996; Stickland, 1998; Waclawski, 2002; Wastell et al., 1994; Watcher, 1993; Whyte and Watcher, 1992; Zairi et al., 1994). Unfortunately, his commitment to extending democratic values in society and his work on Field Theory, Group Dynamics and Action Research which, together with his 3-Step model, formed an inter-linked, elaborate and robust approach to Planned change, have received less and less attention (Ash, 1992; Bargal et al., 1992; Cooke, 1999). Indeed, from the 1980s, even Lewin’s work on change was increasingly criticized as relevant only to small-scale changes in stable conditions, and for ignoring issues such as organizational politics and conï ¬â€šict. In its place, writers sought to promote a view of change as being constant, and as a political process within organizations (Dawson, 1994; Pettigrew et al., 1992; Wilson, 1992). The purpose of this article is to re-appraise Lewin and his work.. The article begins by describing Lewin’s background, especially the origins of his commitment to resolving social conï ¬â€šict. It then moves on to examine the main elements of his Planned approach to change. This is followed by a description of developments in the ï ¬ eld of organizational change since Lewin’s death, and an evaluation of the criticisms levelled against his work. The article concludes by arguing that rather than being outdated, Lewin’s Planned approach is still very relevant to the needs of the modern world. LEWIN’S BACKGROUND Few social scientists can have received the level of praise and admiration  that has been heaped upon Kurt Lewin (Ash, 1992; Bargal et al., 1992; Dent and Goldberg, 1999; Dickens and Watkins, 1999; Tobach, 1994). As Edgar Schein (1988, p. 239) enthusiastically commented: There is little question that the intellectual father of contemporary theories of applied behavioural science, action research and planned change is Kurt Lewin. His seminal work on leadership style and the experiments on planned change which took place in World War II in an effort to change consumer behaviour launched a whole generation of research in group dynamics and the implementation of change programs. 978 B. Burnes  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2004For most of his life, Lewin’s main preoccupation was the resolution of social con- ï ¬â€šict and, in particular, the problems of minority or disadvantaged groups. Underpinning this preoccupation was a strong belief that only the permeation of democratic values into all facets of society could prevent the worst extremes of social conï ¬â€šict. As his wife wrote in the Preface to a volume of his collected work published after his death: Kurt Lewin was so constantly and predominantly preoccupied with the task of advancing the conceptual representation of the social-psychological world, and at the same time he was so ï ¬ lled with the urgent desire to use his theoretical insight for the building of a better world, that it is difï ¬ cult to decide which of these two sources of motivation ï ¬â€šowed with greater energy or vigour. (Lewin, 1948b) To a large extent, his interests and beliefs stemmed from his background as a German Jew. Lewin was born in 1890 and, for a Jew growing up in Germany, at this time, ofï ¬ cially-approved anti-Semitism was a fact of life. Few Jews could expect to achieve a responsible post in the civil service or universities. Despite this, Lewin was awarded a doctorate at the University of Berlin in 1916 and went on to teach there. Though he was never awarded tenured status, Lewin achieved a growing international reputation in the 1920s as a leader in his ï ¬ eld (Lewin, 1992). However, with the rise of the Nazi Party, Lewin recognized that the position of Jews in Germany was  increasingly threatened. The election of Hitler as Chancellor in 1933 was the ï ¬ nal straw for him; he resigned from the University and moved to America (Marrow, 1969). In America, Lewin found a job ï ¬ rst as a ‘refugee scholar’ at Cornell University and then, from 1935 to 1945, at the University of Iowa. Here he was to embark on an ambitious programme of research which covered topics such as child-parent relations, conï ¬â€šict in marriage, styles of leadership, worker motivation and performance, conï ¬â€šict in industry, group problem-solving, communication and attitude change, racism, anti-Semitism, anti-racism, discrimination and prejudice, integration-segregation, peace, war and poverty (Bargal et al., 1992; Cartwright, 1952; Lewin, 1948a). As Cooke (1999) notes, given the prevalence of racism and antiSemitism in America at the time, much of this work, especially his increasingly public advocacy in support of disadvantaged groups, put Lewin on the political left. During the years of the Second World War, Lewin did much work for the American war effort. This included studies of the morale of front-line troops and psychological warfare, and his famous study aimed at persuading American housewives to buy cheaper cuts of meat (Lewin, 1943a; Marrow, 1969). He was also much in demand as a speaker on minority and inter-group relations Kurt Lewin 979  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2004(Smith, 2001). These activities chimed with one of his central preoccupations, which was how Germany’s authoritarian and racist culture could be replaced with one imbued with democratic values. He saw democracy, and the spread of democratic values throughout society, as the central bastion against authoritarianism and despotism. That he viewed the establishment of democracy as a major task, and avoided simplistic and structural recipes, can be gleaned from the following extracts from his article on ‘The special case of Germany’ (Lewin, 1943b): Nazi culture . . . is deeply rooted, particularly in the youth on whom the . . . future depends. It is a culture which is centred around power as the supreme value and which denounces justice and equality . . . (p. 43) To be  stable, a cultural change has to penetrate all aspects of a nation’s life. The change must, in short, be a change in the ‘cultural atmosphere,’ not merely a change of a single item. (p. 46) Change in culture requires the change of leadership forms in every walk of life. At the start, particularly important is leadership in those social areas which are fundamental from the point of view of power. (p. 55) With the end of the War, Lewin established the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The aim of the Center was to investigate all aspects of group behaviour, especially how it could be changed. At the same time, he was also chief architect of the Commission on Community Interrelations (CCI). Founded and funded by the American Jewish Congress, its aim was the eradication of discrimination against all minority groups. As Lewin wrote at the time, ‘We Jews will have to ï ¬ ght for ourselves and we will do so strongly and with good conscience. We also know that the ï ¬ ght of the Jews is part of the ï ¬ ght of all minorities for democratic equality of rights and opportunities . . .’ (quoted in Marrow, 1969, p. 175). In pursuing this objective, Lewin believed that his work on Group Dynamics and Action Research would provide the key tools for the CCI. Lewin was also inï ¬â€šuential in establishing the Tavistock Institute in the UK and its Journal, Human Relations ( Jaques, 1998; Marrow, 1969). In addition, in 1946, the Connecticut State Inter-Racial Commission asked Lewin to help train leaders and conduct research on the most effective means of combating racial and religious prejudice in communities. This led to the development of sensitivity training and the creation, in 1947, of the now famous National Training Laboratories. However, his huge workload took its toll on his health, and on 11 February 1947 he died of a heart attack (Lewin, 1992). 980 B. Burnes  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2004LEWIN’S WORK Lewin was a humanitarian who believed that only by resolving social conï ¬â€šict, whether it be religious, racial, marital or industrial, could the human condition be improved. Lewin believed that the key to resolving social  conï ¬â€šict was to facilitate learning and so enable individuals to understand and restructure their perceptions of the world around them. In this he was much inï ¬â€šuenced by the Gestalt psychologists he had worked with in Berlin (Smith, 2001). A unifying theme of much of his work is the view that ‘. . . the group to which an individual belongs is the ground for his perceptions, his feelings and his actions’ (Allport, 1948, p. vii). Though Field Theory, Group Dynamics, Action Research and the 3-Step model of change are often treated as separate themes of his work, Lewin saw them as a uniï ¬ ed whole with each element supporting and reinforcing the others and all of them necessary to understand and bring about Planned change, whether it be at the level of the individual, group, organization or even society (Bargal and Bar, 1992; Kippenberger, 1998a, 1998b; Smith, 2001). As Allport (1948, p. ix) states: ‘All of his concepts, whatever root-metaphor they employ, comprise a single wellintegrated system’. This can be seen from examining these four aspects of his work in turn. Field Theory This is an approach to understanding group behaviour by trying to map out the totality and complexity of the ï ¬ eld in which the behaviour takes place (Back, 1992). Lewin maintained that to understand any situation it was necessary that: ‘One should view the present situation – the status quo – as being maintained by certain conditions or forces’ (Lewin, 1943a, p. 172). Lewin (1947b) postulated that group behaviour is an intricate set of symbolic interactions and forces that not only affect group structures, but also modify individual behaviour. Therefore, individual behaviour is a function of the group environment or ‘ï ¬ eld’, as he termed it. Consequently, any changes in behaviour stem from changes, be they small or large, in the forces within the ï ¬ eld (Lewin, 1947a). Lewin deï ¬ ned a ï ¬ eld as ‘a totality of coexisting facts which are conceived of as mutually interdependent . . .’ (Lewin, 1946, p. 240). Lewin believed that a ï ¬ eld was in a continuous state of adaptation and that ‘Change and constancy are relative concepts; group life is never without change, merely differences in the amount and type of change exist’ (Lewin, 1947a, p. 199). This is why Lewin used the term ‘quasi-stationary equilibrium’ to indicate that whilst there might be a rhythm and pattern to the behaviour and processes of a group, these tended  to ï ¬â€šuctuate constantly owing to changes in the forces or circumstances that impinge on the group. Lewin’s view was that if one could identify, plot and establish the potency of these forces, then it would be possible not only to understand why individuals, Kurt Lewin 981  Ã‚ © Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2004groups and organizations act as they do, but also what forces would need to be diminished or strengthened in order to bring about change. In the main, Lewin saw behavioural change as a slow process; however, he did recognize that under certain circumstances, such as a personal, organizational or societal crisis, the various forces in the ï ¬ eld can shift quickly and radically. In such situations, established routines and behaviours break down and the status quo is no longer viable; new patterns of activity can rapidly emerge and a new equilibrium (or quasistationary equilibrium) is formed (Kippenberger, 1998a; Lewin, 1947a). Despite its obvious value as a vehicle for understanding and changing group behaviour, with Lewin’s death, the general interest in Field Theory waned (Back, 1992; Gold, 1992; Hendry, 1996). However, in recent years, with the work of Argyris (1990) and Hirschhorn (1988) on understanding and overcoming resistance to change, Lewin’s work on Field Theory has once again begun to attract interest. According to Hendry (1996), even critics of Lewin’s work have drawn on Field Theory to develop their own models of change (see Pettigrew et al., 1989, 1992). Indeed, parallels have even been drawn between Lewin’s work and the work of complexity theorists (Kippenberger, 1998a). Back (1992), for example, argued that the formulation and behaviour of complex systems as described by Chaos and Catastrophe theorists bear striking similarities to Lewin’s conceptualization of Field Theory. Nevertheless, Field Theory is now probably the least understood element of Lewin’s work, yet, because of its potential to map the forces impinging on an individual, group or organization, it underpinned the other elements of his work. Group Dynamics the word ‘dynamics’ . . . comes from a Greek word meaning force . . . ‘group . . . dynamics’ refers to the forces operating in groups . . . it is a  study of these forces: what gives rise to them, what conditions modify them, what consequences they have, etc. (Cartwright, 1951, p. 382) Lewin was the ï ¬ rst psychologist to write about ‘group dynamics’ and the importance of the group in shaping the behaviour of its members (Allport, 1948; Bargal et al., 1992). Indeed, Lewin’s (1939, p. 165) deï ¬ nition of a ‘group’ is still generally accepted: ‘. . . it is not the similarity or dissimilarity of individuals that constitutes a group, but interdependence of fate’. As Kippenberger (1998a) notes, Lewin was addressing two questions: What is it about the nature and characteristics of a particular group which causes it to respond (behave) as it does to the forces which impinge on it, and how can these forces be changed in order to elicit a more desirable form of behaviour? It was to address these questions that Lewin began to develop the concept of Group Dynamics. Group Dynamics stresses that group behaviour, rather than that of individuals, should be the main focus of change (Bernstein, 1968; Dent and Goldberg, 1999). Lewin (1947b) maintained that it is fruitless to concentrate on changing the behaviour of individuals because the individual in isolation is constrained by group pressures to conform. Consequently, the focus of change must be at the group level and should concentrate on factors such as group norms, roles, interactions and socialization processes to create ‘disequilibrium’ and change (Schein, 1988). Lewin’s pioneering work on Group Dynamics not only laid the foundations for our understanding of groups (Cooke, 1999; Dent and Goldberg, 1999; French and Bell, 1984; Marrow, 1969; Schein, 1988) but has also been linked to complexity theories by researchers examining self-organizing theory and non-linear systems (Tschacher and Brunner, 1995). However, understanding the internal dynamics of a group is not sufï ¬ cient by itself to bring about change. Lewin also recognized the need to provide a process whereby the members could be engaged in and committed to changing their behaviour. This led Lewin to develop Action Research and the 3-Step model of change. Action Research This term was coined by Lewin (1946) in an article entitled ‘Action research and minority problems’. Lewin stated in the article: In the last year and a half I have had occasion to have contact with a great variety of organizations, institutions, and individuals who came for help in the ï ¬ eld of group relations. (Lewin, 1946, p. 201) However, though these people exhibited . . .  a great amount of good-will, of readiness to face the problem squarely and . . . really do something about it . . . These eager people feel themselves to be in a fog. They feel in a fog on three counts: 1. What is the present situation? 2. What are the dangers? 3. And most importantly of all, what shall we do? (Lewin, 1946, p. 201) Lewin conceived of Action Research as a two-pronged process which would allow groups to address these three questions. Firstly, it emphasizes that change requires action, and is directed at achieving this. Secondly, it recognizes that successful action is based on analysing the situation correctly, identifying all the possible alternative solutions and choosing the one most appropriate to the situation at hand (Bennett, 1983). To be successful, though, there has also to be a ‘felt-need’. FeltKurt Lewin 983  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2004need is an individual’s inner realization that change is necessary. If felt-need is low in the group or organization, introducing change becomes problematic. The theoretical foundations of Action Research lie in Gestalt psychology, which stresses that change can only successfully be achieved by helping individuals to reï ¬â€šect on and gain new insights into the totality of their situation. Lewin (1946, p. 206) stated that Action Research ‘. . . proceeds in a spiral of steps each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-ï ¬ nding about the results of the action.’ It is an iterative process whereby research leads to action and action leads to evaluation and further research. As Schein (1996, p. 64) comments, it was Lewin’s view that ‘. . . one cannot understand an organization without trying to change it . . .’ Indeed, Lewin’s view was very much that the understanding and learning which this process produces for the individuals and groups concerned, which then feeds into changed  behaviour, is more important than any resulting change as such (Lewin, 1946). To this end, Action Research draws on Lewin’s work on Field Theory to identify the forces that focus on the group to which the individual belongs. It also draws on Group Dynamics to understand why group members behave in the way they do when subjected to these forces. Lewin stressed that the routines and patterns of behaviour in a group are more than just the outcome of opposing forces in a forceï ¬ eld. They have a value in themselves and have a positive role to play in enforcing group norms (Lewin, 1947a). Action Research stresses that for change to be effective, it must take place at the group level, and must be a participative and collaborative process which involves all of those concerned (Allport, 1948; Bargal et al., 1992; French and Bell, 1984; Lewin, 1947b).

Learning Chapters on Project Procurement Management Essays

Learning Chapters on Project Procurement Management Essays Learning Chapters on Project Procurement Management Paper Learning Chapters on Project Procurement Management Paper After reading this chapter, you will b understand the Importance of prop Increasing use of outsourcing for info Describe the work involved in planning determining the proper type of contract t management plan, statement of work, so buy analysis Discuss what is involved in conducting obtaining seller responses, selects Understand the process of admit meet relationships and monitor Describe the process of closing Discuss types of software avail management Marie McBride could not believe how much money her company was paying for outside consultants to help the company finish an important operating system conversion project. The consulting companys proposal said it would provide experienced professionals who had completed similar conversions, and that the Job would be finished in six months or less with four consultants working full time. Nine months later her company was still paying high consulting fees, and half of the original consultants on the project had been replaced with new people. One new consultant had graduated from college only two months before and had extremely poor communications skills. Marries internal staff complained that they were wasting time training some of these experienced professionals. Marie talked to her companys purchasing manager about the contract, fees, and special clauses that might be relevant to the problems they were experiencing. Marie was dismayed at how difficult it was to interpret the contract. It was very long and obviously written by someone with a legal background. When she asked what her company could do since the consulting firm was not following Its proposal, the purchasing manager stated that the proposal was not part of the official contract. Marries company was paying for time and materials, not specific deliverables. There was no clause stating the minimum experience level required for the consultants, nor were there penalty clauses for not completing the work on time. There was a termination clause, however, meaning the company could terminate the contract. Marble wondered why her company had signed such a poor contract. Was there a better way to deal with procuring services from outside the company? Although global outsourcing displaces some IT workers, total employment In the united States increases, according to IOTA, as the benefits ripple through the economy. I en Incremental economic actual TTY Tanat Tools outscore II outsourcing creates over 257,000 net new Jobs in 2005 and is expected to create over 337,000 net new Jobs by 462 P oliticians debate on whether offshore outsourcing helps their own country or not. Andy Boor, chief operating officer of a computer network support service provider, describes outsourcing as an essential part of a healthy business diet. He describes good vs.. Bad outsourcing as something like good vs.. Bad cholesterol. He says that most people view offshore outsourcing as being bad because it takes Jobs away from domestic workers. However, many companies are realizing that they can use offshore outsourcing and create more Jobs at home. For example, Atlanta-based Delta Air Lines created 1,000 call-center Jobs in India in 2003, saving $25 million, which enabled it to add 1,200 Job positions for reservations and sales agents in the United States. 2 Other companies, like Wall-Mart, successfully manage the majority of their information technology projects in-house with very little commercial software and no outsourcing at all. (See the Suggested Reading on the companion Web site on Wall- Marts Way. ) Deciding whether to outsource, what to outsource, and how to outsource are important topics for many organizations throughout the world. In a 2008 survey, 74 percent of 600 global procurement executives believed that procurement issues are a high priority for their companies. About half of respondents also said that their companies focus too much on cost reduction instead of value creation. They also believe they are missing opportunities by not focusing on using technology to improve procurement processes. For example, 72 percent of respondents have less than 10 percent of their spend channeled through procurement and sourcing applications. 3 Most organizations use some form of outsourcing to meet their information technology needs, spending most money within their own country. A 2008 report on IT outsourcing trends in the U. S. And Canada revealed the following: Application development is the most popular form of IT outsourcing and was used by 53 percent of organizations surveyed. Of the surveyed organizations, 44 percent outsourced application maintenance, 40 percent outsourced Web site or e-commerce systems, and 37 percent outsourced disaster recovery services. The IT function with the largest percentage of work outsourced is assister recovery services, accounting for 50 percent of total IT outsourcing. Mortifications see the benefit in having an outside party perform offset storage or maintenance of a recovery facility. Desktop support is the second most outsourced IT function (48 percent), followed closely by data center operations and help desk (47 percent each) and Web site or e-commerce systems (46 percent). IT security is at the bottom of the list, with only 29 percent of the work being outsourced. Even though application development and maintenance are frequently outsourced, they are a low percentage of the amount of total IT work outsourced. Application development and maintenance are often outsourced selectively since most organizations choose to do many projects in-house. 4 Procurement means acquiring goods and/or services from an outside source. The term procurement is Widely used in government; many private companies use the terms purchasing and outsourcing. Organizations or individuals who provide procurement services are referred to as suppliers, vendors, contractors, subcontractors, or sellers, with suppliers being the most widely used term. Many information technology projects involve the use of goods and services from outside he organization. As described in Chapter 2, outsourcing has become a hot topic for research and debate, especially the implication of outsourcing to other countries, referred to as offspring. The outsourcing statistics below are from an Information Technology Association of America (IOTA)-sponsored report: Spending for global sources of computer software and services is expected to grow at a compound annual rate of about 20 percent, increasing from about $1 5 billion in 2005 to $38 billion in 2010. Total savings from offshore resources diddling the same time period are estimated to grow from $8. Billion to $20. 4 billion. The cost savings and use of offshore resources lower inflation, increase productivity, and lower interest rates, which boosts business and consumer spending and increases economic activity. Chapter 12 Project Procurement Management Because outsourcing is a growing area, it is important for project managers to understand project procurement management. Many organizations are turning to outsourcing to: Reduce betrothed and recurrent costs. Outsourcing suppliers are often able to use economies of scale that may not be available to the client alone, especially for hardware and software. It can also be less expensive to outsource some labor costs to other organizations in the same country or offshore. Companies can also use outsourcing to reduce labor costs on projects by avoiding the costs of hiring, firing, and reassigning people to projects or paying their salaries when they are between projects. Allow the client organization to focus on its core business. Most organizations are not in business to provide information technology services, yet many have spent valuable time and resources on information technology functions when they should have focused on core competencies such as marketing, customer arrive, and new product design. By outsourcing many information technology functions, employees can focus on Jobs that are critical to the success of the organization. Access skills and technologies. Organizations can gain access to specific skills and technologies when they are required by using outside resources. For example, a project may require an expert in a particular field or require the use of expensive hardware or software for one particular month on a project. Planning for this procurement ensure that the needed skills or technology will be available for the project. Provide flexibility. Outsourcing to provide extra staff during periods of peak workloads can be much more economical than trying to staff entire projects with internal resources. Many companies cite quicker flexibility in staffing as a key reason for outsourcing. Increase accountability. A well-written contract-a mutually binding agreement that obligates the seller to provide the specified products or services and obligates the buyer to pay for them-can clarify responsibilities and sharpen focus on key deliverables of a project. Because contracts are legally binding, there is more accountability for delivering the work as stated in the contract. In December 2002, who organ Chase announced a sieving to MOM, both companies en- year, $5 billion deal too bragged that the contract w TTS med like a win-win situational would make money an gang Chase could push for innovation. The contract less than two years However, in September 200 egger fit with Comparing Chaises busting its existence because the pro news strategy. According to Austin rumination officer at Comparing Chi couture is best for the long-term gar We believe managing our own techno and success of our company as well a railroaders. However, IBM said he can contract was simply a result of Comparing Chaises merger earlier that year with Bank It tried to shrug off the loss of a large business deal. The combined firm found its an abundance of IT assets, IBM spokesperson James Icicles said. This decision w other business decisions related to the merger. 6 Outsourcing can also cause problems in other areas for companies and nations as a whole. For example, many people in Aus tralia are concerned about outsourcing software development. The Australian Computer Society says sending work offshore may lower ten under AT students entering II courses, deplete ten mummer AT Skilled IT professionals, and diminish the nations strategic technology capability. Another issue is security, which encompasses the protection of intellectual property, integrity of data, and the reliability of infrastructure in offshore locations. 7 The success of many information technology projects that use outside resources is often due to good project procurement management. Project procurement management includes the processes required to acquire goods and services for a project from outside the performing organization. Organizations can be either the buyer or the seller of products or services under a contract. There are four main processes in project procurement management: Organizations must also consider reasons they might not want to outsource. When an organization outsource work, it often does not have as much monitor over those aspects of projects that suppliers carry out. In addition, an organization could become too dependent on particular suppliers. If those suppliers went out of business or lost key personnel, it could cause great damage to a project. Organizations must also be careful to protect strategic information that could become vulnerable in the hands of suppliers. According to Scott McNealy, CEO of Sun Microsystems, Inc. , What you want to handle in-house is the stuff that gives you an edge over your competition-your core competencies. I call it your secret sauce. If youre on Wall Street and you have your own program for tracking and analyzing the market, youll hang onto that. At Sun, we have a complex program for testing microprocessor designs, and well keep it. 5 Project teams must think carefully about procurement issues and make wise decisions based on the unique needs of their projects and organizations. They can also change their minds on outsourcing as business conditions change. . 3. Planning procurements involves determining what to procure, when, and how. In procurement planning, one must decide what to outsource, determine the type of contract, and describe the work for potential sellers. Sellers are contractors, suppliers, or providers who provide goods and services to other organizations. Outputs of this process include a procurement management plan, statements of work, make-or-buy decisions, procurement documents, source selection criteria, and change requests. Conducting procurements involves obtaining seller responses, selecting sellers, and awarding contracts. Outputs include selected sellers, procurement contract awards, resource calendars, change requests, and updates to the project management plan and other project documents. Administering procurements involves managing relationships with sellers, monitoring contract performance, and malting changes as needed. The main outputs of this process Include procurement documents talon, organizational 4. Process asset updates, change requests, and project management plan updates. Closing procurements involves completion and settlement of each contract, including resolution of any open items. Outputs include closed procurements and organizational process asset updates. Figure 12-1 summarizes these processes and outputs, showing when they occur in a typical project. Planning Process: Plan procurements Outputs: Procurement management plan, procurement statements of work, make-or-buy decisions, procurement documents, source selection criteria, and change requests 466 Executing Process: Conduct procurements Outputs: Selected sellers, procurement contract award, resource calendars, change requests, project management plan updates, project document updates Monitoring and Controlling Process: Administer procurements Outputs: Procurement communication, organizational process asset updates, change requests, project management plan updates Closing Process: Close procurements Outputs: Closed procurements, organizational process asset updates Project Start Project Finish FIGURE 121 Project procurement management summary The Boots Company PLY, a Nottingham, England, outsourced its information t Tiber 2002. The Boots Company signed a ten-year d expected to save $203. 9 million over that period com systems itself. IBM managed and developed The Boots Comma cou ture from the mainframes to the tills in our 1,400 stores, to the co , said spokesperson Francis Thomas. More than 400 Boots employees we Vims payroll but continued to work at Boots head office, with extra IBM s n as needed. Thomas added, The great thing about this is that if IBM has an expert in Singapore and [if} we need that expertise, we can tap Into It Tort tender months. It Keeps our costs on an even Keel. 8 is not uncommon moon for long contracts to be renegotiated, becoming either shorter or longer in length. May 2006, Boots and IBM began discussing amendments to their contract because m of Boots IT infrastructure renewal program (including a new pharmacy system and roll) was complete. A Boots spokesman said that the many achieved its goal much quicker than planned. In contrast, in 2005 Boots renegotiated its EYE million, seven-yea IT contract it initially signed in 2002 with Sans, extending it for another two years to 2011 in a EYE million deal. 9 It is also not uncommon to take advantage of competition the changing marketplace for major procurements. In 2008, Boots announced that I have up to six different suppliers competing to supply its IT products and services ova next year. The company is keeping its business system management team and service management in-house? including helpless and project management. 10 Properly planning purchases and acquisitions and writing good contracts can also save organizations millions of dollars. Many companies centralize purchasing for products, such as personal computers, software, and printers, to earn special pricing discounts. For example, in the mid-asses the U. S. Air Force awarded a five-year, multimillion-dollar contract to automate 15 Air Force Systems Command bases. The project manager and contracting officer decided to allow for a unit pricing strategy for some items required in the contract, such as the workstations and printers. By not requiring everything to be negotiated at a fixed cost, the winning supplier lowered its final bid y more than $40 million. II Planning procurements involves identifying which project needs can best be met by using products or services outside the organization. It involves deciding whether to procure, how to procure, what to procure, how much to procure, and when to procure. An important output of this process is the make-or-buy decision. A make-or- buy decision is one in which an organization decides if it is in its best interests to make certain products or perform certain services inside the organization, or if it is better to buy them from an outside organization. If there is no need to buy any reduces or services from outside the organization, then there is no need to perform any of the other procurement management processes. For many projects, properly outsourcing some information technology functions can be a great investment, as shown in the following examples of What Went Right. Inputs needed for planning procurements include the scope baseline, requirements documentation, teaming agreements, the risk register, risk-related contract decisions, activity resource requirements, the project schedule, activity cost estimates, the cost performance baseline, enterprise environmental factors, and organizational process assets. For example, a large clothing company might consider outsourcing the delivery of, maintenance of, and basic user training and support for laptops supplied to its international sales and marketing force. If there were suppliers who could provide this service well at a reasonable price, it would make sense to outsource, because this could reduce fixed and recurring costs for the clothing company and let them focus on their core business of selling clothes. It is important to understand why a company would want to procure goods or services Ana want Inputs are anemia to plan purchases and acquisitions. In the opening case, Marries company hired outside consultants to help complete an operating system conversion project because it needed people with specialized skills for a short period of time. This is a common occurrence in many information technology projects. It can be more effective to hire skilled consultants to perform specific tasks for a short period of time than to hire or keep employees on staff full time. However, it is also important to define clearly the scope of the project, the products, services, or results required, market conditions, and constraints and assumptions. In Marries case, the scope of the reject and services required were relatively clear, but her company may not have adequately discussed or documented the market conditions or constraints and assumptions involved in using the outside consultants. Were there many companies that provided consultants to do operating conversion projects similar to theirs? Did the project team investigate the background of the company that provided the consultants? Did they list important constraints and assumptions for using the consultants, such as limiting the time that the consultants had to complete the conversion project or the minimum years of experience for any consultant assigned o the project? It is very important to answer these types of questions before going into an outsourcing agreement. Dividing both sides by $400, you get: which means that the purchase cost equals the lease cost in 30 days. So, if you need the equipment for less than 30 days, it would be more economical to lease it. If you need the equipment for more than 30 days, you should purchase it. In general, leasing is often cheaper for meeting short-term needs, but more expensive for long- term needs. Expert Judgment Tools and Techniques for Planning Procurements There are several tools and techniques to help project managers and their teams in landing procurements, including make-or-buy analysis, expert Judgment, and contract types. Make-or-Buy Analysis Make-or-buy analysis is a general management technique used to determine whether an organization should make or perform a particular product or service inside the organization or buy from someone else. This form of analysis involves estimating the internal costs of providing a product or service and comparing that estimate to the cost of outsourcing. Consider a company that has 1,000 international salespeople with laptops. Using make-or-buy analysis, the company would compare en cost AT provoking tense services using Internal resources to ten cost AT Dulling those services from an outside source. If supplier quotes were less than its internal estimates, the company should definitely consider outsourcing the training and user support services. Another common make-or-buy decision, though more complex, is whether a company should develop an application itself or purchase software from an outside source and customize it to the companys needs. Many organizations also use make-or-buy analysis to decide if they should either purchase or lease items for a particular project. For example, suppose you need a piece of equipment for a project that has a purchase price of $12,000. Assume it also had a daily operational cost of $400. Suppose you could lease the same piece of equipment for $800 per day, including the operational costs. You can set up an equation in which the purchase cost equals the lease cost to determine when it makes sense financially to lease or buy the equipment. In this example, d = the number of days you need the piece of equipment. The equation would then be: Experts inside an organization and outside an organization could provide excellent advice in planning purchases and acquisitions. Project teams often need to consult experts within their organization as part of good business practice. Internal experts might suggest that the company in the above example could not provide quality training and user support for the 1,000 laptop users since the service involves so many people with different skill levels in so many different locations. Experts in the company might also know that most of their competitors outsource this type of work and know who the qualified outside suppliers are. It is also important to consult legal experts since contracts for outsourced work are legal agreements. Experts outside the company, including potential suppliers themselves, can also provide expert judgment. For example, suppliers might suggest an option for salespeople to purchase the laptops themselves at a reduced cost. This option would solve problems during employee turnover-exiting employees would own their laptops and new employees would purchase a laptop through the program. An internal expert might then suggest that employees receive a technology bonus to help offset what they might view as an added expense. Expert Judgment, both internal and external, is an asset in making many procurement decisions. Types of Contracts $80th = $12,000 + $40th Subtracting $40th from both sides, you get: $40th = $12,000 Contract type is an important consideration. Different types of contracts can be used in different situations. Three broad categories of contracts are fixed price or lump sum, cost reimbursable, and time and material. A single contract can actually include all three of these categories, if it makes sense for that particular procurement. For example, you could have a contract with a seller that includes purchasing specific hardware for a fixed price or lump sum, some services that are provided on a cost lampshades Dados, Ana-eaten services Tanat are approver on a tale Ana material basis. Project managers and their teams must understand and decide which approaches to use to meet their particular project needs. It is also important to understand when and how you can take advantage of unit pricing in contracts. Fixed- price or lump-sum contracts involve a fixed total price for a well-defined product or service. The buyer incurs little risk in this situation since the price is predetermined. The sellers often pad their estimate somewhat to reduce their risk, realizing their rice must still be competitive. For example, a company could award a fixed-price contract to purchase 100 laser printers with a certain print resolution and print speed to be delivered to one location within two months.